Atrial natriuretic peptide
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Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), also called atrial natriuretic factor (ANF), atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH), cardionatrine, cardiodilatin (CDD), or atriopeptin, is a powerful vasodilator, and a protein (polypeptide) hormone secreted by heart muscle cells.[3][4][5] It is involved in the homeostatic control of body water, sodium, potassium and fat (adipose tissue). It is released by muscle cells in the upper chambers (atria) of the heart (atrial myocytes) in response to high blood volume. ANP acts to reduce the water, sodium and adipose loads on the circulatory system, thereby reducing blood pressure.[3] ANP has exactly the opposite function of the aldosterone secreted by the zona glomerulosa in regard to its effect on sodium in the kidney – that is, aldosterone stimulates sodium retention and ANP generates sodium loss.[6][7]
Discovery
ANP was discovered in the early 1980s. de Bold and colleagues in Kingston, Ontario, Canada found that rat atrial extracts contained a substance that increased salt and urine output in the kidney.[8] Later, the substance was purified from the heart by several groups and named ANF or ANP.[9]
Structure
ANP is a 28-amino acid peptide with a 17-amino acid ring in the middle of the molecule. The ring is formed by a disulfide bond between two cysteine residues at positions 7 and 23. ANP is closely related to BNP (brain natriuretic peptide) and CNP (C-type natriuretic peptide), which all share a similar amino acid ring structure.
Production
Human ANP is encoded by the NPPA gene on the short arm of chromosome 1, which has 3 exons and 2 introns. The gene is expressed primarily in cardiac myocytes. Lower levels of NPPA expression are found in other tissues such as the brain, kidney, lung, uterus and placenta.
In cardiac myocytes, ANP is made as a precursor form, i.e. prepro-ANP, a polypeptide of 151 amino acids. After the signal peptide is removed in the endoplasmic reticulum, the 126-amino-acid pro-ANP is stored in the intracellular granules. When the cells are stimulated, pro-ANP is released and converted to the 28-amino-acid C-terminal mature ANP on the cell surface by the cardiac transmembrane serine protease corin.[10][11]
ANP is secreted in response to:
- Stretching of the atrial wall[3]
- Reduced Sympathetic stimulation of β-adrenoceptors
- Raised sodium concentration (hypernatremia), though sodium concentration is not the direct stimulus for increased ANP secretion[3]
- Angiotensin-II
- Endothelin, a potent vasoconstrictor
- exercise[12]
Receptors
Three types of atrial natriuretic peptide receptors have been identified on which natriuretic peptides act. They are all cell surface receptors and designated:
- guanylyl cyclase-A (GC-A) also known as natriuretic peptide receptor-A (NPRA/ANPA) or NPR1
- guanylyl cyclase-B (GC-B) also known as natriuretic peptide receptor-B (NPRB/ANPB) or NPR2
- natriuretic peptide clearance receptor (NPRC/ANPC) or NPR3
NPR-A and NPR-B have a single membrane-spanning segment with an extracellular domain that binds the ligand. The intracellular domain maintains two consensus catalytic domains for guanylyl cyclase activity. Binding of a natriuretic peptide induces a conformational change in the receptor that causes receptor dimerization and activation.
The binding of ANP to its receptor causes the conversion of GTP to cGMP and raises intracellular cGMP. As a consequence, cGMP activates a cGMP-dependent kinase (PKG or cGK) that phosphorylates proteins at specific serine and threonine residues. In the medullary collecting duct, the cGMP generated in response to ANP may act not only through PKG but also via direct modulation of ion channels.[13]
NPR-C functions mainly as a clearance receptor by binding and sequestering ANP from the circulation. All natriuretic peptides are bound by the NPR-C.
ANP and brain natriuretic peptide bind and activate GC-A, whereas CNP binds and activates GC-B.[14]
Physiological effects
ANP binds to a specific set of receptors – ANP receptors. Receptor-agonist binding causes a reduction in blood volume and, therefore, a reduction in cardiac output and systemic blood pressure. Lipolysis is increased and renal sodium reabsorption is decreased. The overall effect of ANP on the body is to counter increases in blood pressure and volume caused by the renin-angiotensin system.
Renal
- Dilates the afferent glomerular arteriole, constricts the efferent glomerular arteriole, and relaxes the mesangial cells. This increases pressure in the glomerular capillaries, thus increasing the glomerular filtration rate (GFR), resulting in greater filter load of sodium and water.
- Increases blood flow through the vasa recta, which will wash the solutes (NaCl and urea) out of the medullary interstitium.[15] The lower osmolarity of the medullary interstitium leads to less reabsorption of tubular fluid and increased excretion.
- Decreases sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule (interaction with NCC)[16] and cortical collecting duct of the nephron via guanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (cGMP) dependent phosphorylation of ENaC
- Inhibits renin secretion, thereby inhibiting the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system.
Adrenal
- Reduces aldosterone secretion by the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex.
Vascular
Relaxes vascular smooth muscle in arterioles and venules by:
- Membrane Receptor-mediated elevation of vascular smooth muscle cGMP
- Inhibition of the effects of catecholamines
Promotes uterine spiral artery remodeling, which is important for preventing pregnancy-induced hypertension.[17]
Cardiac
- Inhibits maladaptive cardiac hypertrophy
- Mice lacking cardiac NPRA develop increased cardiac mass and severe fibrosis and die suddenly[18]
- Re-expression of NPRA rescues the phenotype.
It may be associated with isolated atrial amyloidosis.[19]
Adipose tissue
- Increases the release of free fatty acids from adipose tissue. Plasma concentrations of glycerol and nonesterified fatty acids are increased by i.v. infusion of ANP in humans.
- Activates adipocyte plasma membrane type A guanylyl cyclase receptors NPR-A
- Increases intracellular cGMP levels that induce the phosphorylation of a hormone-sensitive lipase and perilipin A via the activation of a cGMP-dependent protein kinase-I (cGK-I)
- Does not modulate cAMP production or PKA activity
Degradation
Regulation of the effects of ANP is achieved through gradual degradation of the peptide by the enzyme neutral endopeptidase (NEP). Recently, NEP inhibitors have been developed; however they have not yet been licensed. They may be clinically useful in treating congestive heart disease.
Biomarker
Fragments derived from the ANP precursor, including the signal peptide, N-terminal pro-ANP and ANP, have been detected in human blood.[20] ANP and related peptides are used as biomarkers for cardiovascular diseases such as stroke, coronary artery disease, myocardial infarction and heart failure.[21][22][23][24]
Large amounts of ANP secretion has been noted to cause electrolyte disturbances (hyponatremia) and polyuria. These indications can be a marker of a large atrial myxoma. [25]
Therapeutic use
Recombinant human ANP has been approved in Japan to treat patients with heart failure.[26]
Other natriuretic factors
In addition to the mammalian natriuretic peptides (ANP, BNP, CNP), other natriuretic peptides with similar structure and properties have been isolated elsewhere in the animal kingdom. Tervonen (1998) described a salmon natriuretic peptide known as salmon cardiac peptide,[27] while dendroaspis natriuretic peptide (DNP) can be found in the venom of the green mamba, a species of African snake.[28]
Pharmacological modulation
Neutral endopeptidase (NEP) also known as neprilysin is the enzyme that metabolizes natriuretic peptides. Several inhibitors of NEP are currently being developed to treat disorders ranging from hypertension to heart failure. Most of them are dual inhibitors (NEP and ACE). In 2014, PARADIGM-HF study was published in NEJM. This study considered as a landmark study in treatment of heart failure. The study was double blinded; compared LCZ696 versus enalapril in patients with heart failure. The study showed lower all cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality and hospitalization in LCZ696 arm.[29] Omapatrilat (dual inhibitor of NEP and angiotensin-converting enzyme) developed by BMS did not receive FDA approval due to angioedema safety concerns. Other dual inhibitors of NEP with ACE/angiotensin receptor are (in 2003) being developed by pharmaceutical companies.[30]
See also
References
- ↑ "Human PubMed Reference:".
- ↑ "Mouse PubMed Reference:".
- 1 2 3 4 Widmaier EP, Raff H, Strang KT (2008). Vander's Human Physiology, 11th Ed. McGraw-Hill. pp. 291, 509–10. ISBN 978-0-07-304962-5.
- ↑ Potter LR, Yoder AR, Flora DR, Antos LK, Dickey DM (2009). "Natriuretic peptides: their structures, receptors, physiologic functions and therapeutic applications". Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. 191 (191): 341–66. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-68964-5_15. ISBN 978-3-540-68960-7. PMID 19089336.
- ↑ Addicks K, Forssmann WG, Henkel H, Holthausen U, Menz V, Rippegather G, Ziskoven D (1989). "Calcium-calmodulin antagonists Influences the release of cardiodilatin/ANP from atrial cardiocytes". In Wambach G, Kaufmann W. Endocrinology of the heart. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-51409-0.
- ↑ Goetz KL (Jan 1988). "Physiology and pathophysiology of atrial peptides" (PDF). The American Journal of Physiology. 254 (1 Pt 1): E1–15. PMID 2962513.
- ↑ Hoehn K, Marieb EN (2013). "16". Human anatomy & physiology (9th ed.). Boston: Pearson. p. 629. ISBN 978-0-321-74326-8.
question number 14
- ↑ de Bold AJ, Borenstein HB, Veress AT, Sonnenberg H (Jan 1981). "A rapid and potent natriuretic response to intravenous injection of atrial myocardial extract in rats". Life Sciences. 28 (1): 89–94. doi:10.1016/0024-3205(81)90370-2. PMID 7219045.
- ↑ de Bold AJ (Nov 1985). "Atrial natriuretic factor: a hormone produced by the heart". Science. 230 (4727): 767–70. doi:10.1126/science.2932797. PMID 2932797.
- ↑ Yan W, Sheng N, Seto M, Morser J, Wu Q (May 1999). "Corin, a mosaic transmembrane serine protease encoded by a novel cDNA from human heart". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 274 (21): 14926–35. doi:10.1074/jbc.274.21.14926. PMID 10329693.
- ↑ Yan W, Wu F, Morser J, Wu Q (Jul 2000). "Corin, a transmembrane cardiac serine protease, acts as a pro-atrial natriuretic peptide-converting enzyme". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 97 (15): 8525–9. doi:10.1073/pnas.150149097. PMC 26981
. PMID 10880574. - ↑ Kokkonen UM, Pösö AR, Hyyppä S, Huttunen P, Leppäluoto J (Apr 2002). "Exercise-induced changes in atrial peptides in relation to neuroendocrine responses and fluid balance in the horse". Journal of Veterinary Medicine. A, Physiology, Pathology, Clinical Medicine. 49 (3): 144–50. doi:10.1046/j.1439-0442.2002.00428.x. PMID 12019955.
- ↑ Mohler ER, Finkbeiner WE (2011). Medical Physiology (Boron) (2 ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders. ISBN 1-4377-1753-5.
- ↑ Mäkikallio K (2002). "ANP". Placental insufficiency and fetal heart: Doppler ultrasonographic and biochemical markers of fetal cardiac dysfunction. Oulu: Oulun yliopisto. ISBN 951-42-6737-0. OCLC 58358685.
- ↑ Kiberd BA, Larson TS, Robertson CR, Jamison RL (Jun 1987). "Effect of atrial natriuretic peptide on vasa recta blood flow in the rat". The American Journal of Physiology. 252 (6 Pt 2): F1112–7. PMID 2954471.
- ↑ Reeves WB, Andreoli TE (2008). "Chapter 31 – Sodium Chloride Transport in the Loop of Henle, Distal Convoluted Tubule, and Collecting Duct". In Giebisch GH, Alpern RA, Herbert SC, Seldin DW. Seldin and Giebisch's the kidney: physiology and pathophysiology. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press. doi:10.1016/B978-012088488-9.50034-6. ISBN 0-12-088488-7.
- ↑ Cui Y, Wang W, Dong N, Lou J, Srinivasan DK, Cheng W, Huang X, Liu M, Fang C, Peng J, Chen S, Wu S, Liu Z, Dong L, Zhou Y, Wu Q (Apr 2012). "Role of corin in trophoblast invasion and uterine spiral artery remodelling in pregnancy". Nature. 484 (7393): 246–50. doi:10.1038/nature10897. PMID 22437503.
- ↑ Kong X, Wang X, Hellermann G, Lockey RF, Mohapatra S (2007). "Mice Deficient in Atrial Natriuretic Peptide Receptor A (NPRA) Exhibit Decreased Lung Inflammation: Implication of NPRA Signaling in Asthma Pathogenesis". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 119 (1): S127. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2006.11.482.
- ↑ Röcken C, Peters B, Juenemann G, Saeger W, Klein HU, Huth C, Roessner A, Goette A (Oct 2002). "Atrial amyloidosis: an arrhythmogenic substrate for persistent atrial fibrillation". Circulation. 106 (16): 2091–7. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000034511.06350.DF. PMID 12379579.
- ↑ Goetze JP, Hansen LH, Terzic D, Zois NE, Albrethsen J, Timm A, Smith J, Soltysinska E, Lippert SK, Hunter I (Mar 2015). "Atrial natriuretic peptides in plasma". Clinica Chimica Acta; International Journal of Clinical Chemistry. 443: 25–8. doi:10.1016/j.cca.2014.08.017. PMID 25158019.
- ↑ Wang TJ, Larson MG, Levy D, Benjamin EJ, Leip EP, Omland T, Wolf PA, Vasan RS (Feb 2004). "Plasma natriuretic peptide levels and the risk of cardiovascular events and death". The New England Journal of Medicine. 350 (7): 655–63. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa031994. PMID 14960742.
- ↑ Sabatine MS, Morrow DA, de Lemos JA, Omland T, Sloan S, Jarolim P, Solomon SD, Pfeffer MA, Braunwald E (Jan 2012). "Evaluation of multiple biomarkers of cardiovascular stress for risk prediction and guiding medical therapy in patients with stable coronary disease". Circulation. 125 (2): 233–40. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.063842. PMID 22179538.
- ↑ Mäkikallio AM, Mäkikallio TH, Korpelainen JT, Vuolteenaho O, Tapanainen JM, Ylitalo K, Sotaniemi KA, Huikuri HV, Myllylä VV (May 2005). "Natriuretic peptides and mortality after stroke". Stroke; A Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 36 (5): 1016–20. doi:10.1161/01.STR.0000162751.54349.ae. PMID 15802631.
- ↑ Barbato E, Bartunek J, Marchitti S, Mangiacapra F, Stanzione R, Delrue L, Cotugno M, Di Castro S, De Bruyne B, Wijns W, Volpe M, Rubattu S (Mar 2012). "NT-proANP circulating level is a prognostic marker in stable ischemic heart disease". International Journal of Cardiology. 155 (2): 311–2. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2011.11.057. PMID 22177588.
- ↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3067042/
- ↑ Saito Y (Nov 2010). "Roles of atrial natriuretic peptide and its therapeutic use". Journal of Cardiology. 56 (3): 262–70. doi:10.1016/j.jjcc.2010.08.001. PMID 20884176.
- ↑ Tervonen V, Arjamaa O, Kokkonen K, Ruskoaho H, Vuolteenaho O (Sep 1998). "A novel cardiac hormone related to A-, B- and C-type natriuretic peptides". Endocrinology. 139 (9): 4021–5. doi:10.1210/en.139.9.4021. PMID 9724061.
- ↑ Schweitz H, Vigne P, Moinier D, Frelin C, Lazdunski M (Jul 1992). "A new member of the natriuretic peptide family is present in the venom of the green mamba (Dendroaspis angusticeps)". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 267 (20): 13928–32. PMID 1352773.
- ↑ McMurray JJ, Packer M, Desai AS, Gong J, Lefkowitz MP, Rizkala AR, Rouleau JL, Shi VC, Solomon SD, Swedberg K, Zile MR (Sep 2014). "Angiotensin-neprilysin inhibition versus enalapril in heart failure". The New England Journal of Medicine. 371 (11): 993–1004. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1409077. PMID 25176015.
- ↑ Venugopal J (2003). "Pharmacological modulation of the natriuretic peptide system". Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Patents. 13 (9): 1389–1409. doi:10.1517/13543776.13.9.1389.
External links
- Atrial Natriuretic Factor at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)