Desalination facilities
Estimates vary widely between 15,000–20,000 desalination plants producing more than 20,000 m3/day. Micro desalination plants operate near almost every a natural gas or fracking facility is found in the United States.
Algeria
Algeria is believed to have at least 15 desalination plants in operation.
- Arzew IWPP Power & Desalination Plant, Arzew
- Cap Djinet Seawater Reverse Osmosis(SWRO) 100,000 m3/d[1]
- Tlemcen Souk Tleta 200,000 m3/day
- Tlemcen Hounaine 200,000 m3/day
- Beni Saf 200,000 m3/day
- Tenes 200,000 m3/day
- Fouka 120,000 m3/day
- Skikda 100,000 m3/day
- Hamma Seawater Desalination Plant 200,000 m3/day built by GE[2]
- Mostaganem, (Sonaghter) 200,000m3/day[3]
- Magtaa Reverse Osmosis (RO) Desalination Plant 500 000m3/day, Oran, Algeria
Aruba
The island of Aruba has a large (world's largest at the time of its inauguration) desalination plant, with a total installed capacity of 11.1 million US gallons (42,000 m3) per day.[4]
Australia
The Millennium Drought (1997–2009) led to a water supply crisis across much of the country. A combination of increased water usage and lower rainfall/drought in Australia caused state governments to turn to desalination. As a result, several large-scale desalination plants were constructed (see list).
Large-scale seawater reverse osmosis plants (SWRO) now contribute to the domestic water supplies of several major Australian cities including Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, Perth and the Gold Coast. While desalination helped secure water supplies, it is energy intensive (≈$140/ML) and has a high carbon footprint due to Australia's coal-based energy supply. In 2010, a Seawater Greenhouse went into operation in Port Augusta.[5][6][7]
A growing number of smaller scale SWRO plants are used by the oil and gas industry (both on and offshore), by mining companies to supply slurry pipelines for the transport of ore and on offshore islands to supply tourists and residents.
Bahrain
Completed in 2000, the Al Hidd Desalination Plant on Muharraq island employed a multistage flash process, and produces 272,760 m3 (9,632,000 cu ft) per day.[8] The Al Hidd distillate forwarding station provides 410 million liters of distillate water storage in a series of 45-million-liter steel tanks. A 135-million-liters/day forwarding pumping station sends flows to the Hidd, Muharraq, Hoora, Sanabis, and Seef blending stations, and which has an option for gravity supply for low flows to blending pumps and pumps which forward to Janusan, Budiya and Saar.[9]
Upon completion of the third construction phase, the Durrat Al Bahrain seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination plant was planned to have a capacity of 36,000 cubic meters of potable water per day to serve the irrigation needs of the Durrat Al Bahrain development.[10] The Bahrain-based utility company, Energy Central Co contracted to design, build and operate the plant.[11]
Chile
- Copiapó Desalination Plant[12]
- Thorium Power Canada, with its affiliate, DBI Chile, have proposed plans to build a 10 MW demonstration thorium reactor in Chile to power the 2000 litre/day desalination plant. All land and regulatory approvals are currently in process.[13]
China
China operates the Beijing Desalination Plant in Tianjin, a combination desalination and coal-fired power plant designed to alleviate Tianjin's critical water shortage. Though the facility has the capacity to produce 200,000 cubic meters of potable water per day, it has never operated at more than one-quarter capacity due to difficulties with local utility companies and an inadequate local infrastructure.[14]
Cyprus
A plant operates in Cyprus near the town of Larnaca.[15] The Dhekelia Desalination Plant uses the reverse osmosis system.[16]
Egypt
- Dahab RO Desalination Plants Dahab 3,600 m3/day completed 1999
- Hurgada and Sharm El-Sheikh Power and Desalination Plants
- Oyoun Moussa Power and Desalination
- Zaafarana Power and Desalination
Germany
Fresh water on the island of Helgoland is supplied by two reverse osmosis desalination plants.[17]
Gibraltar
Fresh water in Gibraltar is supplied by a number of reverse osmosis and multistage flash desalination plants.[18] A demonstration forward osmosis desalination plant also operates there.[19]
Grand Cayman
- West Bay, West Bay, Grand Cayman[20]
- Abel Castillo Water Works, Governor's Harbour, Grand Cayman[21]
- Britannia, Seven Mile Beach, Grand Cayman[22]
Hong Kong
The Hong Kong Water Supplies Department had pilot desalination plants in Tuen Mun and Ap Lei Chau using reverse-osmosis technology. The production cost was put at HK$7.8 to HK$8.4 /m3.[23][24] Hong Kong used to have a desalination plant in Lok On Pai.[25]
In 2014, the government confirmed the reservation of a 10-hectare site at Tseung Kwan O for the construction of a reverse-osmosis desalination plant with an initial output capacity of 50 million cubic metres per annum. Plans include provisions for future expansion to an ultimate capacity of 90 million cubic metres per annum, which will meet about 10 per cent of Hong Kong's fresh water demand. Detailed feasibility studies, preliminary design and a cost-effectiveness analysis are planned to be completed by 2014. A commissioning date of 2020 is envisaged.[26][27]
India
The largest desalination plant in South Asia is the Minjur Desalination Plant near Chennai in India, which produces 36.5 million cubic meters of water per year.[28][29]
A second plant at Nemmeli, Chennai is expected to reach full capacity of 100 million litres of sea-water per day in March 2013.[30]
Iran
An assumption is that around 400,000 m3/d of historic and newly installed capacity is operational in Iran.[31] In terms of technology, Iran's existing desalination plants use a mix of thermal processes and RO. MSF is the most widely used thermal technology although MED and vapour compression (VC) also feature.[31]
Israel
Israel Desalination Enterprises' Sorek Desalination Plant north of Palmachim was foreseen to provide up to 26,000 m³ of potable water per hour once it went online in June 2013 (that is ca. 228 million m³ when projected on an entire year). At full capacity, it is the largest desalination plant of its kind in the world.[32] Once unthinkable, given Israel's history of drought and lack of available fresh water resource, with desalination, Israel can now actually produce a surplus of fresh water.[33]
The Hadera seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination plant in Israel is the largest of its kind in the world.[34][35] The project was developed as a build–operate–transfer by a consortium of two Israeli companies: Shikun and Binui, and IDE Technologies.[36]
By 2014, Israel's desalination programs provided roughly 35% of Israel's drinking water and it is expected to supply 40% by 2015 and 70% by 2050.[37] As of May 29, 2015 more than 50 percent of the water for Israeli households, agriculture and industry is artificially produced.[38]
| Location | Opened | Capacity (million m3/year) | Cost of water (per m3) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ashkelon | August 2005 | 120 | NIS 2.60 | (capacity as of 2010)[35] |
| Palmachim | May 2007 | 45 | NIS 2.90 | [40] |
| Hadera | December 2009 | 127 | NIS 2.60 | [41] |
| Sorek[42][43] | 2013 | 228 | NIS 2.01 – 2.19 | [44][45] |
| Ashdod | December 2015[46] | 100 | NIS 2.40 | (expansion up to 150 million m3/year possible)[47] |
Additional desalination plants supply the entire freshwater needs of the city of Eilat by desalinating a mix of brackish well water and seawater. Similar plants exist in the Arava and the southern coastal plain of the Carmel range.[48]
Malta
Ghar Lapsi II 50,000 m3/day[49]
Maldives
Maldives is a nation of small islands. Some depend on desalination as a source of water.
Oman
A pilot seawater greenhouse was built in 2004 near Muscat, in collaboration with Sultan Qaboos University, providing a sustainable horticultural sector on the Batinah coast.[50]
- Ghubrah Power & Desalination Plant, Muscat
- Sohar Power & Desalination Plant, Sohar
- Sur R.O. Desalination Plant 80,000 m3/day 2009[51]
- Qarn Alam 1,000 m3/day
- Wilayat Diba 2,000 m3/day
There are at least two forward osmosis plants operating in Oman
Qatar
- Ras Abu fontas (RAF) A2 - 160,000 m3/day. The country has plans for two plants with an additional 194 million gallons / day [54]
Saudi Arabia
The Saline Water Conversion Corporation of Saudi Arabia provides 50% of the municipal water in the Kingdom, operates a number of desalination plants, and has contracted $1.892 billion[55] to a Japanese-South Korean consortium to build a new facility capable of producing a billion liters per day, opening at the end of 2013. They currently operate 32 plants in the Kingdom;[56] one example at Shoaiba cost $1.06 billion and produces 450 million liters per day.[57]
- Corniche RO Plant (Crop) (operated by SAWACO)
- Jubail 800,000 m3/day[58]
- North Obhor Plant (operated by SAWACO)
- Rabigh 7,000 m3/day (operated by wetico)
- planned for completion 2018 Rabigh II 600,000 m3/day (under construction Saline Water Conversion Corporation)[59]
- Shuaibah III 150,000 m3/day (operated by Doosan)
- South Jeddah Corniche Plant (SOJECO) (operated by SAWACO)
- Yanbu Multi Effect Distillation (MED), Saudi Arabia 146,160 m3/day [60]
Spain
Lanzarote is the easternmost of the autonomous Canary Islands, which are of volcanic origin. It is the closest of the islands to the Sahara desert and therefore the driest, and it has limited water supplies. A private, commercial desalination plant was installed in 1964 to serve the whole island and enable the tourism industry. In 1974, the venture was injected with investments from local and municipal governments, and a larger infrastructure was put in place in 1989, the Lanzarote Island Waters Consortium (INALSA)[61] was formed.
A prototype seawater greenhouse was constructed in Tenerife in 1992.[62]
- Alicante II 65,000 m3/day (operator Inima)
- Tordera 60,000 m3/day
- Barcelona 200,000 m3/day (operator Degremont) El Prat, near Barcelona, a desalination plant completed in 2009 was meant to provide water to the Barcelona metropolitan area, especially during the periodic severe droughts that put the available amounts of drinking water under serious stress.
- Oropesa 50,000 m3/day (operator TECNICAS REUNIDAS)
- Moncofa 60,000 m3/day (operator Inima)
- Marina Baja – Mutxamel 50,000 m3/day (operator Degremont)
- Torrevieja 240,000 m3/day (operator ACCIONA)
- Cartagena Escombreras 63,000 m3/day (operator COBRA | TEDAGUA)
- Edam Ibiza + Edam San Antonio 25,000 m3/day (operator Ibiza – Portmany)
- Mazarron 36,000 m3/day (operator TEDAGUA)
- Bajo Almanzora 65,000 m3/day
South Africa
- Mossel Bay 15,000 m3/day[63]
Transnet Saldanha 2,400 m3/day[64]
- Knysna 2,000 m3/day[65]
- Plettenberg Bay 2,000 m3/day[66]
- Bushman's River Mouth 1,800 m3/day[67]
- Lambert's Bay 1,700 m3/day[68]
- Cannon Rocks 750 m3/day[69]
Trinidad and Tobago
The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago uses desalination to open up more of the island's water supply for drinking purposes. The country's desalination plant, opened in March 2003, is considered to be the first of its kind. It was the largest desalination facility in the Americas, and it processes 28,800,000 US gallons (109,000 m3) of water a day at the price of $2.67 per 1,000 US gallons (3.8 m3).[70]
This plant will be located at Trinidad's Point Lisas Industrial Estate, a park of more than 12 companies in various manufacturing and processing functions, and it will allow for easy access to water for both factories and residents in the country.[71]
United Arab Emirates
The Jebel Ali desalination plant in Dubai, a dual-purpose facility, uses multistage flash distillation and is capable of producing 300 million cubic meters of water per year.
- Kalba 15,000 m3/day built for Sharjah Electricity and Water Authority completed 2010 (operator CH2MHill)[72]
- Khor Fakkan 22,500 m3/day (operator CH2MHill)
- Ghalilah RAK 68,000 m3/day (operator AQUATECH)
- Hamriyah 90,000 m3/day (operator AQUA Engineering)
- Taweelah A1 Power and Desalination Plant has an output 385,000,000 L (85,000,000 imp gal; 102,000,000 US gal) per day of clean water.
- Al Zawrah 27,000 m3/day (operator Aqua Engineering)
- Layyah I 22,500 m3/day (operator CH2MHill)
- Emayil & Saydiat Island ≈20,000 m3/day (operator Aqua EPC)
- Umm Al Nar Desalination Plant has an output of 394,000,000 L (87,000,000 imp gal; 104,000,000 US gal)/day.
- Al Yasat Al Soghrih Island 2M gallons per day (GPD) or 9,000 m3/day
- Fujairah F2 is to be completed by July 2010 will have a water production capacity of 492,000,000 L (108,000,000 imp gal; 130,000,000 US gal) per day.[73]
- A seawater greenhouse was constructed on Al-Aryam Island, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates in 2000.
United Kingdom
The first large-scale plant in the United Kingdom, the Thames Water Desalination Plant, was built in Beckton, east London for Thames Water by Acciona Agua.[74]
Jersey
The desalination plant located near La Rosière, Corbiere, Jersey, is operated by Jersey Water. Built in 1970 in an abandoned quarry, it was the first in the British Isles.
The original plant used a multistage flash (MSF) distillation process, whereby seawater was boiled under vacuum, evaporated and condensed into a freshwater distillate. In 1997, the MSF plant reached the end of its operational life and was replaced with a modern reverse osmosis plant.
Its maximum power demand is 1,750 kW, and the output capacity is 6,000 cubic meters per day. Specific energy consumption is 6.8 kWh/m3.[75]
United States
Texas
There are a dozen different desalination projects in the state of Texas, both for desalinating groundwater and desalinating seawater from the Gulf of Mexico.[76][77]
- El Paso: Brackish groundwater has been treated at the El Paso, Texas, plant since around 2004. It produces 27,500,000 US gallons (104,000,000 l; 22,900,000 imp gal) of fresh water daily (about 25% of total freshwater deliveries) by reverse osmosis.[78] The plant's water cost—largely representing the cost of energy—is about 2.1 times higher than ordinary groundwater production. On average, the plant produces 3.5 million gallons per day (about 11 acre-feet) at an average production cost of $489 per acre-foot.[79]
California
California has 17 desalination plants in the works, either partially constructed or through exploration and planning phases.[80] The list of locations includes Bay Point, in the Delta, Redwood City, seven in the Santa Cruz / Monterey Bay, Cambria, Oceaneo, Redondo Beach, Huntington Beach, Dana Point, Camp Pendleton, Oceanside and Carlsbad.[81]
- Carlsbad: The Carlsbad desalination plant was constructed by Poseidon Resources and is the largest desalination plant in the United States when it went online December 14, 2015.[82] It produces 50 million gallons a day to 110,000 customers throughout San Diego County at a reported cost of one billion dollars.
- Concord: Planned to open in 2020, producing 20 million gallons a day.[80]
- Monterey County: Sand City, two miles north of Monterey, with a population of 334, is the only city in California completely supplied with water from a desalination plant.
- Santa Barbara: The Charles Meyer Desalination Facility was constructed in Santa Barbara, California, in 1991–92 as a temporary emergency water supply in response to severe drought.[83][84] While it has a high operating cost, the facility only needs to operate infrequently, allowing Santa Barbara to use its other supplies more extensively.[85][86] The plant is expected to be re-activated in the summer of 2016.
Florida
In 1977, Cape Coral, Florida became the first municipality in the United States to use the RO process on a large scale with an initial operating capacity of 3 million gallons per day. By 1985, due to the rapid growth in population of Cape Coral, the city had the largest low pressure reverse osmosis plant in the world, capable of producing 15 MGD.[87]
As of 2012, South Florida has 33 brackish and two seawater desalination plants operating with seven brackish water plants under construction. The brackish and seawater desalination plants have the capacity to produce 245 million gallons of potable water per day.[88]
- Tampa Bay: The Tampa Bay Water desalination project near Tampa, Florida, was originally a private venture led by Poseidon Resources, but it was delayed by the bankruptcy of Poseidon Resources' successive partners in the venture, Stone & Webster, then Covanta (formerly Ogden) and its principal subcontractor, Hydranautics. Stone & Webster declared bankruptcy June 2000. Covanta and Hydranautics joined in 2001, but Covanta failed to complete the construction bonding, and then the Tampa Bay Water agency purchased the project on May 15, 2002, underwriting the project. Tampa Bay Water then contracted with Covanta Tampa Construction, which produced a project that failed performance tests. After its parent went bankrupt, Covanta also filed for bankruptcy prior to performing renovations that would have satisfied contractual agreements. This resulted in nearly six months of litigation. In 2004, Tampa Bay Water hired a renovation team, American Water/Acciona Aqua, to bring the plant to its original, anticipated design. The plant was deemed fully operational in 2007,[89] and is designed to run at a maximum capacity of 25 million US gallons (95,000 m3) per day.[90] The plant can now produce up to 25 million US gallons (95,000 m3) per day when needed.[91]
Arizona
- Yuma: The desalination plant in Yuma, Arizona, was constructed under authority of the Federal Colorado River Basin Salinity Control Act of 1974 to treat saline agricultural return flows from the Wellton-Mohawk Irrigation and Drainage District into the Colorado River. The treated water is intended for inclusion in water deliveries to Mexico, thereby keeping a like amount of freshwater in Lake Mead, Arizona and Nevada. Construction of the plant was completed in 1992, and it has operated on two occasions since then. The plant has been maintained, but largely not operated due to sufficient freshwater supplies from the upper Colorado River.[92] An agreement was reached in April 2010 between the Southern Nevada Water Authority, the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, the Central Arizona Project, and the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation to underwrite the cost of running the plant in a year-long pilot project.[93]
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