Calendar era

2016 in various calendars
Gregorian calendar2016
MMXVI
Ab urbe condita2769
Armenian calendar1465
ԹՎ ՌՆԿԵ
Assyrian calendar6766
Bahá'í calendar172–173
Bengali calendar1423
Berber calendar2966
British Regnal year64 Eliz. 2  65 Eliz. 2
Buddhist calendar2560
Burmese calendar1378
Byzantine calendar7524–7525
Chinese calendar乙未(Wood Goat)
4712 or 4652
     to 
丙申年 (Fire Monkey)
4713 or 4653
Coptic calendar1732–1733
Discordian calendar3182
Ethiopian calendar2008–2009
Hebrew calendar5776–5777
Hindu calendars
 - Vikram Samvat2072–2073
 - Shaka Samvat1937–1938
 - Kali Yuga5116–5117
Holocene calendar12016
Igbo calendar1016–1017
Iranian calendar1394–1395
Islamic calendar1437–1438
Japanese calendarHeisei 28
(平成28年)
Javanese calendar1949–1950
Juche calendar105
Julian calendarGregorian minus 13 days
Korean calendar4349
Minguo calendarROC 105
民國105年
Nanakshahi calendar548
Thai solar calendar2559
Unix time1451606400–1483228799

A calendar era is the year numbering system used by a calendar. For example, the Gregorian calendar numbers its years in the Western Christian era (the Coptic and Ethiopic churches have their own Christian eras, see below). The instant, date, or year from which time is marked is called the epoch of the era. There are many different calendar eras.

In antiquity, regnal years were counted from the ascension of a monarch. This makes the Chronology of the ancient Near East very difficult to reconstruct, based on disparate and scattered king lists, such as the Sumerian King List or the Babylonian Canon of Kings. In East Asia, reckoning by era names chosen by ruling monarchs ceased in the 20th century except for Japan, where they are still used.

Ancient dating systems

Assyrian eponyms

Main article: Eponym dating system

For over a thousand years, ancient Assyria used a system of eponyms to identify each year. Each year at the Akitu festival (celebrating the Mesopotamian new year), one of a small group of high officials (including the king in later periods) would be chosen by lot to serve as the limmu for the year, which meant that he would preside over the Akitu festival and the year would bear his name. The earliest attested limmu eponyms are from the Assyrian trading colony at Karum Kanesh in Anatolia, dating to the very beginning of the 2nd Millennium BC,[1] and they continued in use until the end of the Neo-Assyrian Period, ca. 612 BC.

Assyrian scribes compiled limmu lists, including an unbroken sequence of almost 250 eponyms from the early 1st Millennium BC. This has been an invaluable chronological aid, because a solar eclipse was recorded as having taken place in the limmu of Bur-Sagale, governor of Guzana. Astronomers have identified this eclipse as one that took place on 15 June, 763 BC, which has allowed absolute dates of 892 to 648 BC to be assigned to that sequence eponyms.[2] This list of absolute dates has allowed many of the events of the Neo-Assyrian Period to be dated to a specific year, avoiding the chronological debates that characterize earlier periods of Mesopotamian history.

Olympiad dating

Among the ancient Greek historians and scholars, a common method for indicating the passage of years was based on the order of Olympic Games, first held in 776 BC. The Olympic games provided the various independent city-states a mutually recognizable system of dates. Olympiad dating was not used in everyday life. This system was in use from the 3rd century. The modern Olympic Games (or Summer Olympic Games beginning 1896) do not continue the four year periods from ancient Greece; 669th Olympiad would have begun in the summer of 1897, but the modern Olympics were first held in 1896.[3]

Indiction cycles

Another common system was the indiction cycle (15 indictions made up an agricultural tax cycle, an indiction being a year in duration). Documents and events began to be dated by the year of the cycle (e.g., "fifth indiction", "tenth indiction") in the 4th century, and this system was used long after the tax ceased to be collected. It was used in Gaul, in Egypt, and in most parts of Greece until the Islamic conquest, and in the Eastern Roman Empire until its conquest in 1453.

The rule for computing the indiction from the AD year number, which he had just invented, was stated by Dionysius Exiguus: add 3 and divide by 15; the remainder is the indiction, with 0 understood to be the fifteenth indiction.[4] Thus 2001 was the ninth indiction.[5] The beginning of the year varied.[4]

Seleucid era

Main article: Seleucid era

The Seleucid era was used in much of the Middle East from the 4th century BC to the 6th century AD, and continued until the 10th century AD among Oriental Christians. The era is computed from the epoch 312 BC: in August of that year Seleucus I Nicator captured Babylon and began his reign over the Asian portions of Alexander the Great's empire. Thus depending on whether the calendar year is taken as starting on 1 Tishri or on 1 Nisan (respectively the start of the Jewish civil and ecclesiastical years) the Seleucid era begins either in 311 BC (the Jewish reckoning) or in 312 BC (the Greek reckoning: October–September).

Ancient Rome

Consular dating

An early and common practice was Roman 'consular' dating. This involved naming both consules ordinarii who had taken up this office on January 2 of the relevant civil year. Sometimes one or both consuls might not be appointed until November or December of the previous year, and news of the appointment may not have reached parts of the Roman empire for several months into the current year; thus we find the occasional inscription where the year is defined as "after the consulate" of a pair of consuls.

The use of consular dating ended in AD 541 when the emperor Justinian I discontinued appointing consuls. The last consul nominated was Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius. Soon afterwards, imperial regnal dating was adopted in its place.

Dating from the founding of Rome

Another method of dating, rarely used, was anno urbis conditae (Latin: "in the year of the founded city" (abbreviated AUC), where "city" meant Rome). (It is often incorrectly given that AUC stands for ab urbe condita, which is the title of Titus Livius's history of Rome.)

Several epochs were in use by Roman historians. Modern historians usually adopt the epoch of Varro, which we place in 753 BC.

The system was introduced by Marcus Terentius Varro in the 1st century BC. The first day of its year was Founder's Day (April 21), although most modern historians assume that it coincides with the modern historical year (January 1 to December 31). It was rarely used in the Roman calendar and in the early Julian calendar – naming the two consuls that held office in a particular year was dominant. AD 2016 is thus approximately the same as AUC 2769 (2016 + 753).

About AD 400, the Iberian historian Orosius used the AUC era. Pope Boniface IV (about AD 600) may have been the first to use both the AUC era and the Anno Domini era (he put AD 607 = AUC 1360).

Regnal years of Roman emperors

Another system that is less commonly found than might be thought was the use of the regnal year of the Roman emperor. At first, Augustus indicated the year of his reign by counting how many times he had held the office of consul, and how many times the Roman Senate had granted him Tribunican powers, carefully observing the fiction that his powers came from these offices granted to him, rather than from his own person or the many legions under his control. His successors followed his practice until the memory of the Roman Republic faded (about AD 200), when they began to use their regnal year openly.

Dating from the Roman conquest

Some regions of the Roman Empire dated their calendars from the date of Roman conquest, or the establishment of Roman rule.

The Spanish era counted the years from 38 BC, probably the date of a new tax imposed by the Roman Republic on the subdued population of Iberia. The date marked the establishment of Roman rule in Spain and was used in official documents in Portugal, Aragon, Valencia, and in Castile, into the 14th century. This system of calibrating years fell to disuse in 1381 and was replaced by today's Anno Domini.[6]

Throughout the Roman and Byzantine periods, the Decapolis and other Hellenized cities of Syria and Palestine used the Pompeian era, counting dates from the Roman general Pompey's conquest of the region in 63 BC.

Maya

A different form of calendar was used to track longer periods of time, and for the inscription of calendar dates (i.e., identifying when one event occurred in relation to others). This form, known as the Long Count, is based upon the number of elapsed days since a mythological starting-point. According to the calibration between the Long Count and Western calendars accepted by the great majority of Maya researchers (known as the GMT correlation), this starting-point is equivalent to August 11, 3114 BC in the proleptic Gregorian calendar or 6 September in the Julian calendar (−3113 astronomical).

Other dating systems

A great many local systems or eras were also important, for example the year from the foundation of one particular city, the regnal year of the neighboring Persian emperor, and eventually even the year of the reigning Caliph.

Late Antiquity and Middle Ages

Most of the traditional calendar eras in use today were introduced at the time of transition from Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages, roughly between the 6th and 10th centuries.

Christian era

Dionysian "Common Era"

Main articles: Anno Domini and Common Era

The era based on the Incarnation of Christ was introduced by Dionysius Exiguus in 525 and is in continued use with various reforms and derivations. The distinction between the Incarnation being the conception or the Nativity of Jesus was not drawn until the late ninth century.[8] The beginning of the numbered year varied from place to place: when, in 1600, Scotland adopted January 1 as the date the year number changes, this was already the case in much of continental Europe. England adopted this practice in 1752.[9]

Dionysian-derived

Islamic

Hindu

Southeast Asia

The Hindu Saka Era influences the calendars of southeast Asian indianized kingdoms.

B.E. of the Bahá'í calendar is below.

Bahá'í

Jewish

Zoroastrian

Modern

Main article: List of calendars

Political

Religious

Practical

See also

References

  1. "CDLI: The Old and Middle Assyrian limmu officials". Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative. Retrieved 18 May 2016.
  2. Millard, Alan (1994). The Eponyms of the Assyrian Empire, 910-612 BC (State Archives of Assyria Studies, Vol. 2). Helsinki: Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project. ISBN 9514567153.
  3. Blackburn, B & Holford-Strevens, L. (1999, 2003). The Oxford Companion to the Year: an exploration of calendar customs and time-reckoning (corrected printing). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-214231-3. p. 769.
  4. 1 2 Blackburn, B & Holford-Strevens, L. (1999, 2003). The Oxford Companion to the Year: an exploration of calendar customs and time-reckoning (corrected printing). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-214231-3. p. 770.
  5. Nautical Almanac Office of the United States Naval Observatory and Her Majesty's Nautical Almanac Office. (2000)The Nautical Almanac for the year 2001. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office and London, England, UK: The Stationery Office. p. B4.
  6. Gedaliah ibn Jechia the Spaniard, Shalshelet Ha-Kabbalah, Jerusalem 1962, p. 271 (Hebrew)
  7. Blackburn & Holford-Strevens. (1999, 2003). 7667.
  8. Blackburn & Holford-Strevens. (1999, 2003). Glossary s. v. Incarnation era.
  9. Blackburn & Holford-Strevens (1999, 2003). p. 7
  10. Associated Press Stylebook. (2007). New York: Basic Books. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-465-00489-8. "Because the full phrase would read in the year of the Lord 96, the abbreviation A.D. goes before the figure for the year: A.D. 96."
  11. In Latin, Common Era is written as Vulgaris Aera. It also occasionally appears as æra vulgaris, aera vulgaris, anni vulgaris, vulgaris aera Christiana, and anni vulgatae nostrae aerae Christianas.
  12. A 1635 English edition of that book has the title page in English – so far, the earliest-found usage of "Vulgar Era" in English. The English phrase "common Era" appears at least as early as 1708.
  13. Cesare, E. (1993). [Correspondence]. Nature, 336, 716.
  14. U.S. Constitution
  15. Sappell, J., & Welkos, R. W. (1990, June 28). Costly Strategy Continues to Turn Out Bestsellers. Los Angeles Times.
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